[33] Winning Bocchus' friendship and making plain Rome's demands for Jugurtha's deliverance, Sulla successfully concluded negotiations and secured Bocchus' capture of Jugurtha and the king's rendition to Marius' camp. Updated on October 07, 2019. The Internet Modern History Sourcebook is one of series of history primary sourcebooks. He had one child from this union, before his first wife's death. Lucius Cornelius Sulla (l. 138 - 78 BCE) enacted his constitutional reforms (81 BCE) as dictator to strengthen the Roman Senate's power. Beyond personal enmity, Caesar Strabo may also have stood for office because it was evident that Rome's relations with the Pontic king, Mithridates VI Eupator, were deteriorating and that the consuls of 88 would be assigned an extremely lucrative and glorious command against Pontus. onwards. Sulla marched to Praeneste and forced its siege to a close, with the younger Marius dead from suicide before its surrender. Ariobarzanes had been driven out by Mithridates VI of Pontus, who wanted to install one of his own sons (Ariarathes) on the Cappadocian throne. Normally, candidates had to have first served for ten years in the military, but by Sulla's time, this had been superseded by an age requirement. Continuing towards Scipio's position at Teanum Sidicinum, Sulla negotiated and was almost able to convince Scipio to defect. Websites. [104], After the Battle of Chaeronea, Sulla learnt that Cinna's government had sent Lucius Valerius Flaccus to take over his command. [50][51], In 94BC, Sulla repulsed the forces of Tigranes the Great of Armenia from Cappadocia. As this caused a general murmur, he let one day pass, and then proscribed 220 more, and again on the third day as many. In 109, Rome sent Quintus Caecilius Metellus to continue the war. [45][46], While governing Cilicia, Sulla received orders from the Senate to restore Ariobarzanes to the throne of Cappadocia. In art, literature, and cultural studies, primary sources . [145], His public funeral in Rome (in the Forum, in the presence of the whole city) was on a scale unmatched until that of Augustus in AD 14. In the ensuing fight, Sulla defeated Marius, who consequently fled to Praeneste. [124] The purge did little to strengthen resolve and when Sulla arrived at Rome, the city opened its gates and his opponents fled. There, Sulla attacked him in an indecisive battle. 9, The Last Age of the Roman Republic, 146-43 BC. Mithridates was to give Asia and Paphlagonia back to Rome. Scipio's men quickly abandoned him for Sulla; finding him almost alone in his camp, Sulla tried again to persuade Scipio to defect. Threatened by the Pontic navy, Sulla sent his quaestor Lucullus to scrounge about for allied naval forces. The constitutional reforms of Sulla were a series of laws enacted by the Roman dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla between 82 and 80 BC, reforming the Constitution of the Roman Republic in a revolutionary way.. Scipio's army blamed him for the breakdown in negotiations and made it clear to the consul that they would not fight Sulla, who at this point appeared the peacemaker. [56] When the pro-Italian plebeian tribune Marcus Livius Drusus was assassinated in 91BC while trying again to pass a bill extending Roman citizenship, the Italians revolted. This may have been related to Sulla's campaign for the consulship. Examples include journal articles, reviews . Regardless, if he had immediate plans for a consulship, they were forced into the background at the outbreak of war. This also removed the need for the censor to draw up a list of senators, since more than enough former magistrates were always available to fill the Senate. The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. "[157] This duality, or inconsistency, made him very unpredictable and "at the slightest pretext, he might have a man crucified, but, on another occasion, would make light of the most appalling crimes; or he might happily forgive the most unpardonable offenses, and then punish trivial, insignificant misdemeanors with death and confiscation of property. A research article or study proving this would be a primary source. Archives; Correspondence Even those whom Sulla had quarrelled with (including Publius Cornelius Cethegus, whom Sulla had outlawed in 88 BC) defected to join his side. On each line there is a link to the page where the name can be found. Speeches, diaries, letters and interviews - what the people involved said or . Campaigning on his military record, the people were unwilling to hear tales of military bravado from a mere junior officer after two triumphs. Plutarch states in his Life of Sulla that "Sulla now began to make blood flow, and he filled the city with deaths without number or limit," further alleging that many of the murdered victims had nothing to do with Sulla, though Sulla killed them to "please his adherents.". [89] After Octavius induced the senate to outlaw Cinna, Cinna suborned the army besieging Nola and induced the Italians again to rise up. Primary sources are the evidence of history, original records or objects created by participants or observers at the time historical . When the campaign in Italy started, two theatres emerged, with Sulla facing the younger Marius in the south and Metellus Pius facing Carbo in the north. Family members of the proscribed were not excluded from punishment, and slaves were not excluded from rewards. Primary sources are first-hand accounts of events. Here are the names and relevant periods for some of the main ancient Latin and Greek sources for Roman history. [99], Discovering a weak point in the walls and popular discontent with the Athenian tyrant Aristion, Sulla stormed and captured Athens (except the Acropolis) on 1 March 86BC. The hundreds of thousands of men who enlisted . The circumstances of his relative poverty as a young man left him removed from his patrician brethren, enabling him to consort with revelers and experience the baser side of human nature. [81] He sent his army back to Capua[82] and then conducted the elections for that year, which yielded a resounding rejection of him and his allies. [37], Starting in 104BC, Marius moved to reform the defeated Roman armies in southern Gaul. [109] When Flaccus' consular army marched through Macedonia towards Thrace, his command was usurped by his legate Gaius Flavius Fimbria, who had Flaccus killed before chasing Mithridates with his army into Asia itself. [41] After the failure of negotiations, the Romans and Cimbri engaged in the Battle of the Raudian Field in which the Cimbri were routed and destroyed. The faculty and students of the Hanover College History Department initiated the Hanover Historical Texts Project in 1995, at a time when few primary sources were available outside of published anthologies. Athens itself was spared total destruction "in recognition of [its] glorious past" but the city was sacked. [127] In the north at the same time, Norbanus was defeated and fled for Rhodes, where he eventually committed suicide. Sulla then served as legate under his former commander and, in that stead, successfully subdued a Gallic tribe which revolted in the aftermath of a previous Roman defeat. Gaius Marius, a lieutenant of Metellus, returned to Rome to stand for the consulship in 107BC. [61] But after Cato's death in battle with the Marsi,[62] Sulla was prorogued pro consule and placed in supreme command of the southern theatre. Further, Sulla failed to frame a settlement whereby the army (following the Marian reforms allowing nonland-owning soldiery) remained loyal to the Senate, rather than to generals such as himself. Due to his meeting the minimum age requirement of thirty, he stood for the quaestorship in 108BC. Sulla, in southern Italy, operated largely defensively on Lucius Julius Caesar's flank while the consul conducted offensive campaigning. Wikipedia entry + Cornelius , Epaphroditus , Sylla 138/31 The birth of L.Sulla. [59] Sulla attempted also to assist Lucius' relief of the city of Aesernia, which was under siege, but both men were unsuccessful. Primary source is a term used in a number of disciplines to describe source material that is closest to the person, information, period, or idea being studied. Secondary sources, on the other hand, are made . The two greatest of these were Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Sulla then duly besieged the city. Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BCE) was a ruthless military commander, who first distinguished himself in the Numidian War under the command of Gaius Marius.His relationship with Marius soured during the conflicts that would follow and lead to a rivalry which would only end with Marius' death.Sulla eventually seized control of the Republic, named himself dictator, and after eliminating his . Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo, merely an ex-aedile and one of Sulla's long-time enemies, had contested the top magistracy. If Plutarch's text is to be amended to "Julia", then she is likely to have been one of the Julias related to Julius Caesar, most likely. Through Sulla's reforms to the Plebeian Council, tribunes lost the power to initiate legislation. Tweet. Despite initial difficulties, Sulla was successful with minimal resources and preparation; with few Roman troops, he hastily levied allied soldiers and advanced quickly into rugged terrain before routing superior enemy forces. be determined. In fact, many sources can be either primary or secondary depending on the context of the research and of the source itself. Updated on June 22, 2022 Students. Mithridates also would equip Sulla with seventy or eighty ships and pay a war indemnity of two or three thousand talents. [94] While Rome was preparing to move against Pontus, Mithridates arranged the massacre of some eighty thousand Roman and Italian expatriates and their families, confiscating any available properties. [38] The next year, Sulla was elected military tribune and served under Marius,[39] and assigned to treat with the Marsi, part of the Germanic invaders, he was able to negotiate their defection from the Cimbri and Teutones. Se l'azienda ha pi di 200 dipendenti, deve essere presente anche il rappresentante sindacale aziendale (RSA). [155] Plutarch notes that Sulla considered that "his golden head of hair gave him a singular appearance. Works of art, in general, are considered primary sources. It is intended to serve the needs of teachers and students in college survey courses in modern European history and American history, as well as in modern Western Civilization and World Cultures. National Library Services to Schools has developed a suite of primary source analysis tools specifically for Aotearoa New Zealand schools. His troops prepared the ground by starting to dig a series of three trenches, which successfully contained Pontic cavalry. Of those who contracted the bubonic plague, 4 out of 5 died within eight days. No action was taken against the troops nor action taken to relieve Pompey Strabo of command. sulla primary sources. Pueblo, CO 81001. Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people who did. Gaius Sallustius Crispus (Sallust) was born Amiternum in the country of the Sabines in 86 BC. Website. Plutarch states in his Life of Sulla that he retired to a life spent in dissolute luxuries, and he "consorted with actresses, harpists, and theatrical people, drinking with them on couches all day long." He could acknowledge the law as valid. Historians and other scholars classify sources as primary or secondary. He left one of his allies, Quintus Lucretius Afella to maintain the siege at Praeneste and moved for Rome. Primary sources enable the researcher to get as close as possible to the truth of what actually happened during an historical event or time period. After Sulla had recovered the government by force of arms, everybody became robbers and plunderers. [36] Amid a reorganisation of political alliances, the traditionalists in the Senate raised up Sulla a patrician, even if a poor one, as a counterweight against the newcomer Marius. Sulla, himself a patrician, thus ineligible for election to the office of Plebeian Tribune, thoroughly disliked the office. Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Fimbria then committed suicide after a failed attempt on Sulla's life. Sulla almost certainly received a normal education for his class, grounded in ancient Greek and Latin classics. Archelaus tried to break out but were unsuccessful; Sulla then annihilated the Pontic army and captured its camp. aking of America (MoA) is a digital library of primary sources in American social history from the antebellum period through reconstruction. . With Mithridates' armies in Europe almost entirely destroyed, Archelaus and Sulla negotiated a set of relatively cordial peace terms which were then forwarded to Mithridates. Killing Cluentius before the city's walls, Sulla then invested the town and for his efforts was awarded a grass crown, the highest Roman military honour. This, of course, meant that many cases were never heard at all, as poorer clients did not have the money for the sponsio. Encyclopedias. Even though the prosecutor declined to show up on the day of the trial, leading to Sulla's victory by default, Sulla's ambitions were frustrated. Pompey was then dispatched to recover Sicily. Primary Sources (1) Speech by Gaius Marius in the Senate, quoted by Sallust in his book The Jugurthine War (c. 40 BC) . In this first video of a 2-part tutorial, we will discuss primary sources. With Sulpicius able to enact legislation without consular opposition, Sulla discovered that Marius had tricked him, for the first piece of legislation Sulpicius brought was a law transferring the command against Mithridates to Marius. Later political leaders such as Julius Caesar would follow his precedent in attaining political power through force. Copyright statement. What Is a Primary Source? La riunione periodica sulla sicurezza e la salute dei lavoratori deve essere convocata dal datore di lavoro e devono partecipare almeno il rappresentante dei lavoratori per la sicurezza (RLS) e il medico competente. Marius, offering his services to Cinna, helped levy troops. [23] The means by which Sulla attained the fortune which later would enable him to ascend the ladder of Roman politics are not clear; Plutarch refers to two inheritances, one from his stepmother (who loved him dearly) and the other from his mistress Nicopolis. 45-120 CE) was a Platonist philosopher, best known to the general public as author of his "Parallel Lives" of paired Greek and Roman statesmen and military leaders.He was a voluminous writer, author also of a collection of "Moralia" or "Ethical Essays," mostly in dialogue format, many of them devoted to philosophical topics, not at all . Throughout the research process, you'll likely use various types of sources. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and thus the Senate. primary name: Sulla, Lucius Cornelius other name: Cornelius L f P n Sulla Felix . Find these with these special Subject terms. [91], During close of the Social War, in 89BC, Mithridates VI Eupator of Pontus invaded Roman Asia. Plutarch of Chaeronea in Boeotia (ca. Sulla can be seen as setting the precedent for Julius Caesar's dictatorship, and for the eventual end of the Republic under Augustus. [105] Sulla moved to intercept Flaccus' army in Thessaly, but turned around when Pontic forces reoccupied Boetia. Primary sources are "first-hand" information, sources as close as possible to the origin of the information or idea under study. He then attacked the Samnites and routed one of their armies near Aesernia before capturing the new Italian capital at Bovianum Undecimanorum. Student Engagement: Primary source materials "help spark students . An inscription on a sixteenth-century tombstone in Istanbul would be a primary source from the Classical Ottoman Age. The Mithridatic War (88 - 85 BC) [48] The Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, was executed upon his return to Parthia for allowing this humiliation; the Parthians, however, ratified the treaty reached, which established the Euphrates as a clear boundary between Parthia and Rome. Primary Source 10. [69], Sulla started his consulship by passing two laws. Sulla, meanwhile, had to allow matters to unfold beyond his control. Faced with mobilizing a sufficient fighting force, Congress passed the Selective Service Act on May 18, 1917. [118], For 82BC, the consular elections returned Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, in his third consulship, with the younger Gaius Marius, the son of the seven-time consul, who was then twenty-six. The bubonic plague was the most commonly seen form during the Black Death, with a mortality rate of 30-75% and symptoms including fever of 38 - 41 C (101-105 F), headaches, painful aching joints, nausea and vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise. Sulla raised important cavalry forces for Marius and was responsible for the . However, this material may be located in a number of places including in the library, elsewhere on campus, or even online. Roman military leaders. Sulla would ratify Mithridates' position in Pontus and have him declared a Roman ally. This, along with the increase in the number of courts, further added to the power that was already held by the senators. Archelaus then hid in the nearby marshes before escaping to Chalcis. [126] Sulla's specific movements are very vaguely described in Appian, but he was successful in preventing the Italians from relieving Praeneste or joining with Carbo. Each actor's story is unique and each brings something important to the ensemble. They are different from secondary sources, accounts that retell, analyze, or interpret events, usually at a distance of time or place." Library of Congress Teacher's Page. He returned victorious from the east in 82 BC, marched a second time on Rome, and crushed the populares and their Italian allies at the Battle of the Colline Gate. Over the previous 300 years, the tribunes had directly challenged the patrician class and attempted to deprive it of power in favor of the plebeian class. 134/4 C.Marius spends his early life in the countryside near Arpinum. 1011 accepts these inheritances without much comment and places them around Sulla's turning thirty years of age. His troops were sufficiently impressed by his leadership that they hailed him imperator. The ancient biography of Sulla written by Plutarch is useful. During these times on the stage, after initially only singing, he started writing plays, Atellan farces, a kind of crude comedy. Taking Action: Benefits for students that extend beyond the classroom. "[132] The majority of the proscribed had not been enemies of Sulla, but instead were killed for their property, which was confiscated and auctioned off. Sulla was born in a very turbulent era of Rome's history, which has often been described as the beginning of the fall of the Roman Republic.The political climate was marked by civil discord and rampant political violence where voting in the Assembly was . He also divorced his then-wife Cloelia and married Metella, widow of the recently-deceased Marcus Aemilius Scaurus. [125], Carbo, who had suffered defeats by Metellus Pius and Pompey, attempted to redeploy so to relieve his co-consul Marius at Praeneste. And for his consular colleague, he attempted to transfer to him the command of Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo's army. Learning in Black and White. [109] Faced with Fimbria's army in Asia, Lucullus' fleet off the coast, and internal unrest, Mithridates eventually met with Sulla at Dardanus in autumn 85BC and accepted the terms negotiated by Archelaus. [52] He may have stayed in the east until 92BC, when he returned to Rome. At the same time, the younger Marius sent word to assemble the Senate and purge it of suspected Sullan sympathisers: the urban praetor Lucius Junius Brutus Damasippus then had four prominent men killed at the ensuing meeting. Years later, in 91BC, Bocchus paid for the erection of gilded equestrian statue depicting Sulla's capture of Jugurtha. Late in the year, Sulla cooperated with Marius (who was a legate in the northern theatre) in the northern part of southern Italy to defeat the Marsi: Marius defeated the Marsi, sending them headlong into Sulla's waiting forces. [68] Shortly after Sulla's election, probably in the last weeks of the year, Sulla married his daughter to one of his colleague Pompeius Rufus' sons. [61] Pompeii was taken some time during the year, along with Stabiae and Aeclanum; with the capture of Aeclanum, Sulla forced the Hirpini to surrender. He was devoted to pleasure but more devoted to glory. "[148][149] Sulla's example proved that it could be done, therefore inspiring others to attempt it; in this respect, he has been seen as another step in the Republic's fall. By the end of the war, the SSA had conscripted over 2.8 million American men. The proceeds from auctioned property more than made up for the cost of rewarding those who killed the proscribed, filling the treasury. Turning south, he engaged the Pontic army allegedly 90,000[101] on the plain of Orchomenus. Helping or sheltering a proscribed person was punishable by death, while killing a proscribed person was rewarded with two talents. Sulla immediately proscribed 80 persons without communicating with any magistrate. After some days, both sides engaged in battle. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix[8] (/sl/; 13878 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. [28][29], Under Marius, the Roman forces followed a very similar plan as under Metellus, capturing and garrisoning fortified positions in the African countryside. He was awarded the Grass Crown for his bravery at the Battle of Nola. [26] Sulla was assigned by lot to his staff. This brief guide is designed to help students and researchers find and evaluate primary sources available online. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. Marius and his son, along with some others, escaped to Africa. Sulla's military coup was enabled by Marius's military reforms, that bound the army's loyalty with the general rather than to the Roman Republic, and permanently destabilized the Roman power structure. The collection is particularly strong in the subject areas of education, psychology, American history, sociology, religion, and science and technology. "[158], His excesses and penchant for debauchery could be attributed to the difficult circumstances of his youth, such as losing his father while he was still in his teens and retaining a doting stepmother, necessitating an independent streak from an early age. [27], When Marius took over the war, he entrusted Sulla to organise cavalry forces in Italy needed to pursue the mobile Numidians into the desert. With the capture and execution of Carbo, who had fled Sicily for Egypt, both consuls for 82BC were now dead. Book Sources: Bloody Sunday - Selma to Montgomery March (1965) A selection of books/e-books available in Trible Library. A list of useful online sources for reading about Rome at the time of Sulla Bill Thayer's LacusCurtius - Includes maps of the Roman world, texts of several primary sources, and William Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. [146] An epitaph, which Sulla composed himself, was inscribed onto the tomb, reading, "No friend ever served me, and no enemy ever wronged me, whom I have not repaid in full. Church and W. J. Brodribb. Sulla then settled affairs "reparations, rewards, administrative and financial arrangements for the future" in Asia, staying there until 84BC. Sulla's First Civil War (88-87 BC) was triggered by an attempt to strip him of the command against Mithridates and saw Sulla become the first Roman to lead an army against the city for four hundred years. . There, while giving a speech, he had three or four thousand Samnite prisoners butchered, to the shock of the attending senators. The collection currently contains . [127] Sulla himself was defeated and forced to flee into his camp, but his lieutenant Crassus on the right wing won the battle in the night. Historian Suetonius records that when agreeing to spare Caesar, Sulla warned those who were pleading his case that he would become a danger to them in the future, saying, "In this Caesar, there are many Mariuses. These two reforms were enacted primarily to allow Sulla to increase the size of the Senate from 300 to 600 senators. Historians to Sulla's dictatorship such as Livy (From the Founding of the City) and Appian (Roman History, especially the section regarding the Civil Wars) include additional details of Marius' life during the Social War while other sources list brief statements of note. They were, however, successful in holding Macedonia, then governed by propraetor Gaius Sentius and his legate Quintus Bruttius Sura. 134/3 eagle's brood foretells the number of Marius' consulships. Primary sources are often in manuscript collections and archival records. [59] Sulla served as one of the legates in the southern theatre assigned to consul Lucius Julius Caesar. The United States entered World War I on April 6, 1917, when the U.S. Congress agreed to a declaration of war. During these marriages, he engaged in an affair with Nicopolis, who also was older than him. Sulla also codified, and thus established definitively, the cursus honorum, which required an individual to reach a certain age and level of experience before running for any particular office. Hind 1992, p.150 dismisses claims in Plutarch and Vellius Paterclus of Athens being forced to cooperate with Mithridates as "very hollow" and "apologia". To make primary texts readily available for classroom use, they selected important . The interest rates were also to be agreed between both parties at the time that the loan was made, and should stand for the whole term of the debt, without further increase. In the natural and social sciences, primary sources are often empirical studies . The Roman general and dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 B.C.) Sulla then prohibited ex-tribunes from ever holding any other office, so ambitious individuals would no longer seek election to the tribunate, since such an election would end their political career. Biography Roman military commander and dictator of the Roman republic (81-80 BC). [87], Sulla's ability to use military force against his own countrymen was "in many ways a continuation of the Social War a civil war between former allies and friends developed into a civil war between citizens what was eroded in the process was the fundamental distinction between Romans and foreign enemies". Sulla's body was cremated and his ashes placed in his tomb in the Campus Martius. However, if you were studying how compact fluorescent light bulbs are presented in the popular media, the magazine article could be considered a primary source. Possibly to protect himself from future political retribution, Sulla had the sons and grandsons of the proscribed banned from running for political office, a restriction not removed for over 30 years. The later battle, at Orchomenus, was fought in high summer but before the start of the autumn rains. [32] After the Senate approved negotiations with Bocchus, it delegated the talks to Marius, who appointed Sulla as envoy plenipotentiary. [34] The publicity attracted by this feat boosted Sulla's political career. Sulla played an important role in the long political struggle between the optimates and populares factions at Rome. [44], His term as praetor was largely uneventful, excepting a public dispute with Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo (possibly his brother-in-law) and his magnificent holding of the ludi Apollinares.
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